The Lead Education and Abatement Design Group
Working to eliminate lead poisoning globally and to protect the
environment from lead in all its uses: past, current and new uses
ABN 25 819 463 114
This
is the first step towards designing your lead safety strategy.
Find
out about the sources of lead hazards in your local community. This will
give an indication on how high a priority lead management issues should
rank in your council’s resource allocation decisions.
This
process involves:
Acquiring
a basic understanding of the sources and pathways of lead with an
overview of the major sources of lead poisoning;
Defining
your local lead risk profile through the completion of the council
lead risk assessment checklist;
Investigating
identified lead risk factors;
Assessing
findings in the light of the standards and guidelines for lead in
various media / products in NSW.
Lead
has been used over the years in a multitude of industrial and domestic
products with Australia being the world’s largest exporter of lead.
As a
result, lead is ubiquitous in the environment, creating multiple sources
of hazards to the people exposed to it, as shown in this table.
Source
of Lead
Comments
Paint
Lead
paint (defined in the US as containing greater than 0.5% lead but in
Australia is defined as 1% lead by weight of the dry film) is the most
common (though usually indirect) source of lead poisoning in children.
Lead paint with more than 1% lead was used in residences in Australia up
to 1970 and there are 3.7 million pre-1970 homes in Australia. In 1992,
the maximum lead content was reduced to 0.25% and in 1997 it was reduced
again to the current maximum lead content of domestic paint - 0.1%.
Hand
to mouth activities results in the ingestion of dust from lead paint that
is either flaking, chalking, or has been sanded.
Ingestion
of lead paint chips directly, either flaking from the walls or being
chewed from painted pieces of furniture or toys (in particular, cots), is
rarer but can cause very serious to lethal lead poisoning.
Lead
is still in use for automotive and marine paints, industrial paints, farm
equipment paints and sign and marking paints. Those same lead paints can
occasionally be found inappropriately used as primers in residential
housing or as glossy feature coatings.
Building
materials
Lead
is a common component in building products, including sheet lead, lead
flashing, lead solder, lead water pipes (and sometimes gutters), plumbing
fittings, PVC products, leadlight windows and the contacts on light bulbs.
(See EPA Lead Guide for Councils in Technical Note 3 for
more details on uses.)
Soil
Soil
is a major reservoir of lead in the environment. Soil can be contaminated
with lead from fallout of airborne pollution, from the road, industrial or
agricultural activities involving lead. Previous use of land or
surrounding land is to be considered, for example, agricultural,
industrial, workshops involving lead use, clay target shooting. Exterior
sanding, scraping or abrasive blasting of lead paint, as well as unsafe
disposal of lead waste, also cause high levels of lead in soil. Children
playing in the dirt risk ingesting lead. Lead dust may also be brought
into the house on shoes.
Dust
Dust
can contain high levels of lead as a result of a number of sources
including past or current industrial activity, unsafe lead paint
management, unsafe renovations, leaded petrol, lead light windows. It is
the most common medium for lead poisoning, as a result of being ingested
or inhaled. Accumulated cavity dust is of particular concern as it can be
released into the living areas through cracks in ceilings, or released
into the environment in large quantities during demolition or renovation
work.
Lead
dust brought home on clothes of parents or other adult co-residents
working in the lead industry is also a source of lead exposure in
children.
Drinking
water
Lead
in water is a less commonly identified source of elevated blood lead
levels when reticulated water is in use, but occasionally can contribute
to lead poisoning from lead leaching into drinking water from old lead
pipes, lead solder on water pipes or in fittings. Newer plumbing systems
actually contribute more lead to the drinking water than old ones, due to
lead in PVC and brass and bronze fittings.
Tank
water is a much more likely source of lead poisoning due to belated
changes in 1996 to the Building Code of Australia (BCA) which banned lead
flashings on the roof area used for collection of drinking water. One
in four of the tanks tested in a study in rural Victoria, by Bannister
et al., contained lead at or greater than the guideline level for lead
in drinking water.
Tank
water can also be contaminated with lead when the first flush of rain is
not diverted from the tank, especially after a long dry period, from roofs
made of new sheet metal or sheet metal painted with lead paint, from
ceramic roof tiles, old lead guttering, new sheet metal guttering or
tanks, new PVC roofing, guttering, tanks or pipes, lead solder used in the
piping, tank or fittings, and leaded brass or bronze fittings, etc.
Stormwater
Unsafe
practices such as non-contained dry sanding of lead paint, or failure to
remove lead dust from ceiling cavities prior to demolition or renovations
which break into the ceiling or wall cavities,result in the
contamination of soil, dust, and stormwater with lead, and eventually to
high levels of lead in waterways. Disposal of liquid waste containing lead
to toilets is a common practice. Through sewage overflows, this also
contributes to the contamination of waterways. Other sources of waterway
lead contamination include industrial activities involving emission of
lead fumes or dust, cars: lead acid batteries, tyre wear, lead weights on
car wheels and burned cars contaminating stormwater drains or rivers.
Petrol
and other vehicle-associated sources
The
progressive process of phasing out lead in petrol nationwide was completed
as at the 1st January 2002. This has significantly reduced the
level of airborne lead pollution. However, lead in soil and in dust
accumulated over the years of leaded petrol-generated airborne pollution
remains in the environment and constitutes a health hazard for years to
come. Cars are still a significant source of lead contamination through
the use of lead in car batteries, radiators, PVC, auto-paints, panel
beating, wheel and seat-belt weights, etc. Activities still permitted to
use leaded petrol in the form of AvGas include motor racing, motor bike
racing and water sports and in remote Aboriginal communities where there
are petrol sniffing problems.
Other
sources
Other
sources include activities such as mining, smelting, processing,
recycling, electronics, gun clubs, radiator repair and panel beating
workshops.
Workers are the most affected by lead from point sources, in particular
when working conditions do not offer adequate ventilation and other
controls. The families of these workers are also at risk with lead brought
home by the workers on their clothes and shoes. Lead emissions from point
sources also expose the community to risk from airborne lead
contamination, leading to dust and soil contamination.
Hobbyists
in do-it-yourself building and demolition, painting, turning battery lead
into sinkers or bullets, diving weights, boat keels etc or other hobbies
that involve lead such as furniture and antique restoration, are often
exposed to lead and may expose their neighbours.
Also
food and drink stored in leaded crystal, lead-soldered cans, or lead
pewter and collector’s items (for example lead soldiers, bronze or brass
items) or lead-glazed ceramic ware, leadlight and lead or pewter jewellery
are sources of lead.
Just
tick those items in the table that occur in your local government area.
Lead
Risk Factor / Past or Present Activity
Lead
Use / Source of Lead
1
Buildings
built prior to 1970, including heritage properties, hospitals, schools,
community halls
Paint,
leaded building materials
2
Activities
involving demolition work and exposure of ceiling/roof/wall cavities
Dust
in cavities
3
Heavy
traffic areas; (major roads; major traffic intersections of over 25,000
vehicles a day)
Leaded
petrol emissions
4
Any
structure or infrastructure that may be coated with lead paint (old
children's play equipment, bridges, tanks)
Paint
5
Shooting
range (clay shooting, gun club, defence works)
Lead
shot
6
Airport
Fuel
7
Marina
Paints,
ship keels, ballast and components
8
Waste
facilities
Paint
waste, chemical waste
9
Mining
and extractive activities
Zinc,
copper, silver, lead ores, waste
10
Smelting
and refining activities
Ore
concentrates and slag
11
Battery
manufacture and recycling
Lead
plates, oxides, leaded sulphuric acid, waste
12
Chemical
manufacture and use
Paint,
pigments, pesticides and plastics, waste
13
Electrical
/ electronic works
Solder,
air, dust, cable sheathing and in cable coating, waste
14
Engine
works
Lead
petrol, paint on metal machinery
15
Service
station and fuel storage facilities
Leaded
petrol storage tanks, sludge, soil
16
Foundries
and gas works
Paint
on metal and in alloys, gas production by-products, air, dust, soil,
17
Metal
treatment works
Paint
and galvanising on metal machinery, air, dust
18
Timber
paint stripping yards, wood for reuse
Paint
removed from timber, old paints, flakes, dust
19
Exhaust
and radiator repair shops, auto paint and panel-beating shops
Paint,
lead petrol exhaust dust, lead metal used for filling, dust
20
Areas
of natural out-croppings of lead in surface soil (contact the Department
of Mineral Resources)
Soil
21
Areas
that were used for orchards, market gardens or other agricultural purposes
Lead
based fertilisers and pesticides. Apple orchards are of particular concern
with the extended use of lead arsenate up to approx. 1960.
Once
completed, the risk factor checklist sketches your local government area (LGA)
lead risk profile.
In
this task, the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) internet database could
be of assistance. It provides information on types and amounts of certain
substances being emitted to the environment. www.npi.gov.au
Once
the risk factors are established, the assessment of your council's current
response to mitigate those risks and protect the community will dictate
how much of a lead hazard threatens your community.
The
following questionnaire aims to explore the current lead policies in place
and/or highlights the measures that need to be taken to address them.
How is
your council currently addressing lead risks? Write answers in the table.
1
Has
there been a risk assessment of lead activities in your LGA and has there
been any further investigation of lead levels in relevant areas?
2
What
is the proportion of pre-1970 dwellings in your LGA?
3
Is
there one or more person/s in your council in charge of lead issues?
4
Has
council adopted a development control plan on lead / hazardous substances?
5
Has
your council adopted model conditions of consent ensuring the
identification and management of lead in home renovation / demolition?
6
What
is council’s policy for identification and management of lead hazards in
council-owned or managed premises frequented by children (pre-schools,
early childhood centres, libraries, caravan parks, halls, etc.)?
7
Does
your council have trained officers to deal with lead issues arising out of
council’s activities?
8
Are
there lead-safe guidelines for maintenance of council-owned or managed
infrastructure?
9
Is
there a protocol for council’s workers / contractors to comply with
lead-safe work procedures?
10
What
is the council’s response to concerns expressed by residents on, for
instance, a neighbour’s unsafe renovation / demolition creating a risk
of lead contamination?
11
Has
council conducted lead poisoning public awareness campaigns?
12
Has
any study of stormwater pollution been conducted and what has been
revealed by it in terms of heavy metals pollution? If a problem has been
identified, what actions have been taken to address the issue?
13
Is
there annual testing of lead (and other chemicals) in drinking water in
facilities owned or controlled by council (in particular for water from
rainwater tanks that serve the public), eg caravan parks, halls, childcare
facilities, libraries, tourist destinations?
Systematic
lead testing and risk assessment of lead in assets and areas are a
compulsory component of any council lead-safe policy. All council
workers should be trained in basic testing techniques, but for more
comprehensive testing, the service of a professional lead assessor may
be required.
Although
it is safe to simply assume the presence of lead paint in all buildings
built prior to 1970, testing the paint allows a more accurate risk
assessment.
Post
1970 buildings should not be coated with lead paint. The possibility
that lead paint may be present should however not be discounted.
Industrial or maritime paint might have been applied, or recycled
materials (eg. windows or doors) might have been used.
The
Australian Standard AS 4361.2, 1998 Guide to Lead Paint Management -
Part 2: Residential and Commercial Buildings provides
guidelines for assessment and describes the three techniques used for
detection of lead.
Chemical
field test reagents (spot tests) - for paint
Portable
X-Ray Fluorescence analysers (XRF)
Laboratory
analysis
Council
owned or managed infrastructure and services should be systematically
tested for lead.
A
list of local spot test suppliers should be established and made
available to council staff as well as to the public. A general list is
available on the Council LEAD project website and supplied in the
Resources section of this kit.
Lead
assessment of the paint is a good start, but a comprehensive assessment,
including dust and soil testing is better.
Professional
lead assessors conduct comprehensive building assessment and advise on
the management of lead and other hazardous substances.
Contact
details, company profile and descriptions of their services can be found
in the Related Resources section of this document.
This
table is a reference for any questions that may arise on the
"acceptable" levels of lead, keeping in mind that any level of
lead is a contamination level since there is no safe level of lead.
Lead
Source / Pathway
Lead
Levels
Standard
/ Guideline Source
Air
1.5
micrograms/m3 1.5 µg/m3
(90 days average) for ambient air
By
2008, NSW is required to comply with the National Environment Protection
Measure for Ambient Air Quality which limits lead in air to 0.5 micrograms/m3
0.5 µg/m3(annual average)
150
µg/m3 TWA for worker exposures.
Allowable
industry emissions to air vary according to company licence but rarely
exceed 1.0 µg/m3 .
NSW
EPA using National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)
recommendation as a guideline for compliance
National
Environment Protection Council (Commonwealth) Act 1994
National
Environment Protection Council (New South Wales) Act 1995
National
Environment Protection Measure for Ambient Air Quality 1998
Exposure
Standards for Atmospheric Contaminants in the Occupational Environment
[NOHSC:1003(1995)]
Food
0.5
mg/kg - generic standard for food products
0.3
mg/kg – instant food
0.2
mg/kg – beverages
1.0
mg/kg – offal
National
Food Authority – Food Standard Code
Soil
General
background concentration of total lead in soil is less than 50 mg/kg
300
mg/kg Investigation level for residential yards, garden, day care
centres, pre-schools and primary schools
600
mg/kg Investigation level for recreational open space, playgrounds,
parks and secondary schools
1200
mg/kg Investigation level for multi-unit buildings where residents
have limited access to soil
1500
mg/kg Investigation level for commercial and industrial areas.
NSW
EPA 1994
Australian
and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council (ANZECC), National
Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and the National
Environmental Health Forum recommendation for investigation threshold
for lead in soil.
These
same values have been taken up into the National Environment
Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure 1999 which was
endorsed under s. 105 of the NSW Contaminated Land Management Act1997, as according to a requirement of the National
Environment Protection Council (New South Wales) Act 1995.
Drinking Water
0.01
mg/L (0.01 mg/L = 10 micrograms (µg) per litre) in drinking water 0.05 mg/L in raw water which is source for drinking water
<4.5% lead in products or materials in contact with hot and
cold potable water OR to comply with AS 4020 0.01% lead in solder in contact with drinking water
NHMRC
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 1996
Non-Drinking Water
Concentration
of total lead in fresh & marine waters depends on water hardness and
the applicable % of species protected.
Australian
Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters, 2002
Protection
of the Environment Operations (General) Regulations 1998
Petrol
National
phase out of leaded petrol completed as at 1/1/02 with exception of
leaded petrol (AvGas) still permitted for water sports, motor car and
motor bike racing and in remote aboriginal communities where there are
sniffing problems.
Fuel
Quality Standard Regulation 2001 under the Fuel Quality Standard Act
2000 (Commonwealth). Exemptions to allow the continued use of AvGas
are given by Environment Australia to sporting associations and to the
Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing
Dust
Bare
and carpeted floors: 1 mg/m2
Interior
window sills: 5 mg/m2
Exterior
surfaces: 8 mg/m2
NSW
EPA recommends the use of lead dust standards to determine the safety of
the premises for re-occupancy after renovation and clean-up are
completed.
The
lead dust loadings for various surfaces are from AS 4361.2-1998 Guide
to lead paint management Part 2: Residential and Commercial Buildings.
They were originally based on 1995 US guidance for investigation of lead
poisoning. In the US the "clearance" level for bare and
carpeted floors was lowered in 2000 to 0.4 mg/m2but
the Australian standard is yet to change to this more rigorous clearance
level.
Paint
0.1%
maximum lead content for domestic paint (since December 1997) – paint
for bridges is now included in this category.
Uniform
paint standard – Appendix I of Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of
Drugs and Poisons
Blood
Non-occupational
National
goal: all Australians to be at or below 10 micrograms/decilitre or 0.48 micromoles/litre (10 µg/dL or
0.48 µmol/L).
National target: all Australians to have a blood lead level below 15
micrograms/decilitre or 0.72 micromoles/litre (15 µg/dL or 0.72
µmol/L) by 1998. *
15
micrograms/decilitre or 0.72 micromoles/litre (15 µg/dL or 0.72
µmol/L):
15
micrograms/decilitre or 0.72 micromoles/litre (15 µg/dL or 0.72
µmol/L): Notification of elevated blood lead levels by laboratories
to the Public Health Unit is required in NSW.
NHMRC
Guidelines for Lead in Australians: goal revised 2 June 1993; target set
at November 1993 meeting of NHMRC [A new target is required as the date
attached to the first target has passed long ago].
Blood
lead notification is required at 0.72 micromoles/L under the Public
Health Act, since December 1996 in NSW. **.
Blood
Occupational
Level
at and over which an employer must ensure that a worker must cease to
carry out a lead risk job:
50
micrograms/decilitre or 2.41 micromoles/litre (50 µg/dL or 2.41
µmol/L): Females not of reproductive capacity and males
20
micrograms/decilitre or 0.97 micromoles/litre (20 µg/dL or 0.97
µmol/L) Females of reproductive capacity
15
micrograms/decilitre or 0.72 micromoles/litre (15 µg/dL or 0.72
µmol/L) females who are pregnant or breast-feeding.
Occupational
Health and Safety Regulations, 2001, Chapter 7: Hazardous Processes,
Part 7.6 Lead processes and lead risk work, section 203.
* Strategies
in place to meet the national target were expected to result in 90% of
children 1-4 years to have a blood lead level below 10 micrograms/decilitre
or 0.48 micromoles/litre (10 µg/dL or 0.48 µmol/L) by the
end of 1998. [The national target has not been achieved to date in
Sydney or in the major lead point source areas of Broken Hill in Far
West NSW and Boolaroo in North Lake Macquarie, near Newcastle.
**
Tasmania is considering requiring notification at 0.48
micromoles/litre (0.48 µmol/L). In the US, many states require
notification of any blood lead result
In
completing this Step 1, the following has been achieved:
Definition
of your local lead risk profile
Investigation
of the problem areas and determination of the scope of the problem
Assessment
of council’s current policy on lead.
This
information lays the foundation of your Lead Action Plan.
The
next step is to consider the options available to council for addressing
the lead issues that have come to light through this evaluation process,
and select the most appropriate components of your Lead Action Plan.
The Lead Education and Abatement Design Group
Working to eliminate lead poisoning globally and to protect the
environment from lead in all its uses: past, current and new uses
ABN 25 819 463 114
